Woodpeckers have their own agenda and it has nothing to do with pecking the buggy-goodness out of the wood. The aim is for the object to be silent and move. What is that new smell? More than 300 species of woodpeckers are known throughout the world, and 22 species inhabit the United States. Search for volunteer opportunities around the country, News about wonderful wild things and places, FWS is taking steps to mitigate climate impacts, Search employment opportunities with USFWS, What to do when your house catches the attention of woodpeckers, Swan Mortality at Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge, Current Road Conditions at Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, Frecklebelly Madtom Final Listing, 4(d) Rule and Critical Habitat - Frequently Asked Questions, Candidate Conservation Agreements (CCA & CCAA), Coastal Barrier Resources Act Project Consultation, Coastal Barrier Resources System Property Documentation. Strong scents are going to overwhelm the birds olfactory system, which it uses at least a little bit to survive. These birds can live up to 20 years and will start breeding . Woodpeckers regularly do something called drumming on metal gutters, and it can be very loud. They are around 16-19 inches in length and are about the size of crows. Yet they can pose big problems for homeowners. Furthermore, two woodpecker species - the red-cockaded woodpecker and the ivory-billed woodpecker - are on the Endangered Species list. Nesting can affect more than just your siding. In the spring and fall of the year, Extension hotlines light up with questions about woodpeckers damaging the exterior wood siding or trim on houses. So woodpeckers are one of the many species that are extremely important to the ecosystem. The Pileated Woodpecker is not a threatened species, but it is impacted by human development and climate change. Woodpeckers are beautiful birds that are an important part of our ecosystem. Combine scent, visual, or physical deterrents to keep the hammering at bay so you can enjoy these creatures from a distance! The smell they give off might be pleasant to us humans, but to a woodpecker, its a different story. The red-bellied woodpecker is 9-10 1/2, and the flicker is 12-14." The pileated is the largest, about the size of a crow, at 16-19 1/2. Map: Gold represents breeding range; green represents year-round range. The scientists confirmed that woodpeckers are pretty good at protecting their noggins, by using a few special tricks: Woodpeckers are better than hoopoes at varying the path of their pecks. It's always best to start repelling before you notice a problem. Seasonal Variation in Acoustic Signals of Pileated Woodpeckers. Our 400+ detailed species profiles bring birds to life across the Americas with a focus on threats and conservation. Lozenges. Woodpeckers are also very social animals that nest together in groups called colonies. Seven species are common to Pennsylvania, and a few others visit the state in winter. Some species of woodpeckers have tongues that are up to 4 long! Birds only. Get the latest conservation news, meet new species, and learn how you can help protect birds throughout the Americas. These excavations can be so broad and deep that they can cause small trees to break in half. This guy right next to me? Woodpeckers. They are found in mountainous pine forests in parts of the West. Learn more about structure Essential oils are highly concentrated and should always be diluted before using as a repellent. Check out the Environmental Studies & Sustainability B.S. Acorn woodpeckers store acorns by drilling holes in trees, fence posts, utility poles, and buildings and depositing massive numbers of nuts. Similarly, they drink sap from excavations made by sapsuckers. Woodpeckers' skulls are more flexible because of the plate-like bones. for 9x3 Cake Pan. Most often, it captures insects in the air. Printed on high quality edible icing paper (not wafer or rice paper) using high quality edible ink, also certified kosher. This pesky insect can devastate the, Read More 8 Simple Ways To Get Rid Of Leaf Beetle LarvaeContinue, Your email address will not be published. Placing light-weight plastic netting is one of the most cost-effective methods of excluding noisy woodpeckers. Its range has shifted and will continue to shift northward and eastward as the climate changes. 6. Attach a guard to keep predators from raiding eggs and young. This contraption is in the shape of a swooping hawk. Check out the Sustainable Parks, Recreation & Tourism B.S. If you have woodpecker activity at your home that you feel needs to be addressed, we can help. building a nest box of the appropriate size. woodpecker, any of about 180 species of birds that constitute the subfamily Picinae (true woodpeckers) of the family Picidae (order Piciformes), noted for probing for insects in tree bark and for chiseling nest holes in deadwood. Woodpeckers are equipped with a long tongue that has backward-facing hooks and barbs used to scoop up insects they find inside their bored holes. We all know citronella is great for repelling mosquitos. Springtime is the most important season for deterring woodpeckers. Their habitats have a variety of trees, branches, shrubs, and perches for them to forage through. Lavender can be used by making sachets from dried flowers like FGOs Organic Lavender Flowers Dried. Behavior & Ecological Role Click to expand. They also consume sap, nuts, and the fruits of some trees and shrubs. The main damage caused by woodpeckers is the holes they make in trees, utility poles, and on the siding of houses. To these birds dead wood is a necessity for life. Just like people, woodpeckers need food and shelter. The Saguaro Cactus can live up to 200 years, reach heights of 50 feet tall, and weight 5000+ pounds when its fully hydrated. The more cavities, the more secondary cavity nesters the forest can support. Working with others to conserve, protect and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people. Look (and listen) for Pileated Woodpeckers whacking at dead trees and fallen logs in search of their main prey, carpenter ants, leaving unique rectangular holes in the wood. Predatory Birds How To Protect Woodpeckers From Predators Conclusion Five Animals That Eat Woodpeckers While some of the animals on this 'woodpecker enemies' list may surprise you - we've got you covered. The Woodland Trust has a scheme to restore our ancient woodlands to ensure that we do not lose . You cant always depend on predators to be around to scare off woodpeckers. While other sources such as PSU.edu are saying as many as 300 exist.. Woodpeckers. At just 6 to 7 inches long, these birds can be difficult to spot, but they are common in forests, urban areas, parks, and other habitats. Quentin Tyler, Director, MSU Extension, East Lansing, MI 48824. But woodpeckers dont just peck to peck. They will also look for food in deep crevices. Bird netting is available at many hardware and farm supply stores as well as online. This type of activity happens in early spring and will typically settle down around mid-April. They occasionally follow Pileated Woodpeckers, inspecting the larger birds' excavations for overlooked insects. No, all woodpeckers are creatures of daylight hours. Although they sometimes evict smaller Red-cockaded Woodpeckers from nest sites, Red-bellieds themselves are more often displaced by European Starlings. Pileated Woodpeckers sometimes visit backyard bird feeders, especially for suet. American Bird Conservancy and other conservation organizations are helping imperiled woodpecker species by conserving critical habitat, improving land management practices, and educating landowners about the importance of forest conservation. Check out our power tool accessories; Auto-Line and AutoAngle drills guides . The straight lines are made by a kind of woodpecker called a yellow-bellied sapsucker. 14 Things Woodpeckers Eat Zygodactyl feet have two toes in the front and two toes in the back which allow the woodpecker to grip the tree in a way that allows very quick vertical and horizontal movements, as well as increased leverage for pecking. There are only a few types of birds with really long tongues that wrap around their eye sockets allowing them to extend them out much further than other birds. How Does the Pileated Woodpecker Benefit Other Species? U.S./Canada Population Estimate: 9,900,000 Population Trend: Decreasing Habitat: Eastern and western forests Threats: Not well understood. Obviously, taste is subjective, so saying that one bird is the best bird to eat probably isn't true, but we'd still like to know what you think. Hang it far enough from the side of the house that it does not act like a cargo net for them to hang on comfortably and make holes. Signs of their presence: Woodpeckers target hollow things like dead trees and branches, as well as loud reverberating things like stop signs and the siding of your house. Male and female pileated woodpeckers look very similar to each other and can be difficult to tell apart even for an experienced birder. Whether youre an experienced birder or are new to the world of birds, theres plenty to know about this species. How Does the Pileated Woodpecker Avoid Brain Injury? These are sometimes called polypores because the spores are produced inside tubes that line the underside of the fruit body, which look like gills but are called pores. You can find the best bird netting product in . It has remained common despite deforestation and the threats involved with human development, such as collisions with windows on buildings and predatory cats. If youre noticing a lot of woodpecker damage around your home or on the trees in your yard, there is probably something attracting the woodpeckers to your yard. They have a purpose, and are specially equipped to do it! The tongue wraps around the head, and the cranium has limited excess space so that it doesnt move around. The same concept can be applied to woodpeckers. But citronella can do so much more than that! If you notice woodpecker damage, youll want to concentrate your efforts on these areas. Quick view. They eat seeds, fruits, nuts, and sometimes even tree sap. In order to help you flesh out your dinner table with interesting meals, peruse and vote on this list of the best birds to eat. Woodpeckers. Woodpeckers are different from any other type of bird. Find your local Migratory Birds Program contact to connect with one of our wildlife professionals who will help you assess the situation and find legal solutions. Look for Pileated Woodpeckers in stands of mature forest with plenty of dead trees and downed logsdeep excavations into rotten wood are telltale signs of this species. A human? In urban settings, and backyards, cats are among the species leading predators. The scent of these herbs and more specifically, their oils, are too strong for a woodpeckers senses and masks potential food sources, causing them to stay away. Woodpeckers along with hummingbirds and even orioles are among these birds with long tongues. The Pileated Woodpecker lives in forested areas on the eastern side of the United States, the northwestern coast of the United States, and Canada. Scare-eye balloons filled with air and dangling from a piece of twine. This article was published by Michigan State University Extension. We often get questions about how to deter woodpecker activity on homes. Open, grassy yards do the opposite. MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer, committed to achieving excellence through a diverse workforce and inclusive culture that encourages all people to reach their full potential. This website primarily references personal learning experiences. Woodpeckers feed mainly on wood-boring grubs, insects, insect eggs and pupae found in dead and live trees. Are woodpeckers diurnal or nocturnal? We comply with the Federal Trade Commission 1998 Childrens Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA). Sometimes woodpeckers are only looking for a place to stash some food or an easy way to communicate. Build nest boxes. Permits will be issued only if non-lethal methods have previously been tried and failed. Its massive excavations sometimes cause smaller trees to break in half. But this is almost never the case. The woodpecker block is composed of various seeds and nuts bound together by some edible "glue". The Pileated Woodpecker is the biggest Woodpecker in Minnesota and can be found all year round, but is less common in the southwest of Minnesota.. With its' flaming-red triangular crest the Pileated Woodpecker is very striking. EIN: 52-1501259. Sign up for ABC's eNews to learn how you can help protect birds. They chip divots into many kinds of trees and return later to hopefully feed on the sap that has come up. Their specialized zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward and two back, help them get a firm grip on vertical surfaces. When they peck dead trees and logs for food, they leave rectangular spaces behind that other species use for nesting. Although the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is still listed by the U.S. Woodpeckers like dead or dying trees where the heartwood is already soft, this makes it easier for them to excavate out their nest cavities. We have omitted two vagrant species, the Great Spotted Woodpecker and Eurasian Wryneck, which rarely visit the U.S. U.S./Canada Population Estimate: 2,000,000 Population Trend: Increasing Habitat: Western forests with oaks Threats: Habitat loss, invasive bird species (European Starling), occasional hunting Note: In the fall, Acorn Woodpecker groups choose a granary tree into which they drill holes to store acorns. And the birds on this list that you have heard of, well, youve probably never thought about eating them. All species of woodpeckers are at least somewhat protected by federal and local laws, this means that intentionally killing woodpeckers is illegal and is not recommended. Woodpeckers | 1281 12" Precision Woodworking Square (1281R) Compare . It has remained common despite deforestation and the threats involved with human development, such as collisions with windows on buildings and predatory cats. Even though many people may think that woodpeckers eat wood, similar to how beavers eat wood, they actually dont. The term woodpecker applies to several different species and refers to their habit of pecking through dead trees and logs to access food. Other woodpeckers, as well as House Wrens, may come and feed there. Woodpeckers cause problems around homes primarily due to drumming and drilling activities. Then let woodpeckers and other species take over. Is the Pileated Woodpecker a Threatened Species? But the main driver of Red-headed Woodpecker declines is habitat loss caused by development of bottomland forest and suppression of fires found naturally in some forest ecosystems. Chocolates. The main sound that a Pileated Woodpecker makes is its drumming sound. You sigh and wonder how long these bandits are going, Read More Vinegar: Why It Works To Repel Raccoons And How To Use ItContinue, The Lily Leaf Beetle is a European invasive insect that was first found in North America in the 1940s. Woodpeckers don't eat wood Even though many people may think that woodpeckers eat wood, similar to how beavers eat wood, they actually don't. Woodpeckers simply use their beaks as a tool to dig out holes into wood which allows them to excavate nesting holes or get insects and insect larvae from the hole. As a homeowner, you have the right to maintain your property and the responsibility to work with us to develop the best way to mitigate bird activity. Make sure you put it up well before breeding season. Candies. One of the most vital roles that they play is eating insects that can be harmful to trees. In the south of their range, Red-headed Woodpeckers may even raise two broods a year. Please consult a pest control professional before applying any tactics from pestpointers.com. Sometimes, the hole goes right through the wood. It comes in an essential oil form. Your first thought might be to view woodpeckers as pests and call a local pest control company to remove them. Proper exclusion, harassment and monitoring will be necessary to demonstrate the need for a permit. Many different types of birds have their own names when it comes to a group, or flock, of them. You can differentiate these from nesting holes by looking at the size. They do not migrate, but can be found in these regions year-round. While males sport colorful plumage with highlights of red and yellow, females have a more subdued, barred appearance, resembling small flickers. The upperparts are greenish with silvery or golden reflections; the sides and belly are silvery white. Woodpeckers - Wildlife Illinois Birds Wildlife Identification Birds Woodpeckers Photo: Greg Hume, CC BY-SA 3.0 A male northern flicker. This special bone unique to woodpeckers wraps around their entire skull inside their heads and adds a sort of shock protection. Damage to a house can take two forms. Woodpeckers have even been spotted banging on street signs to amplify their drumming! Both partners will peck roosting spots near each other and then share territory throughout the day. Those pesky birds can do some damage, but all in all, they are beautiful to see and there are simple steps you can take to deter them from your home. Members of the sapsucker variety dont actually suck the sap though, they bore out sapwells in trees then they stick their long tongues in and sip and lick at the sap. Woodpeckers that have fed in the past year: red-bellied, downy, hairy, pileated, and common flicker. U.S./Canada Population Estimate: 69,000 Population Trend: Decreasing Habitat: Dry, open western forests Threats: Changes to forest composition due to fire suppression, grazing, logging, and climate change Note: Unlike other types of woodpeckers, the Lewis's Woodpecker rarely bores into trees. The flicker was a surprise as they usually eat ants off the ground. The female incubates most of the day, and the male incubates at night and during part of the day. Habitat & Food Click to expand. Nesting holes are going to be much larger, about the width of the bird itself. Assessment of Management Techniques To Reduce Woodpecker Damage to Homes. When Im not out roaming around 50+ acres of pastures, woods, and a freshwater bass pond, Im at my computer writing on Pest Pointers. Throughout our forests, only 1-in-10 cavities are created naturally. As we mentioned earlier, woodpeckers have special federal protection, so homeowners are liable for the illegal removal of protected species, but there are legal avenues for dealing with unwanted birds on a case-by-case basis. Woodpeckers have their own agenda and it has nothing to do with pecking the buggy-goodness out of the wood. The U.S. Not only is their constant pecking loud and irritating, it can also damage your home, garage, and fences as well as trees located on your property. They peck small, acorn-sized holes in trees and place a single acorn in each hole. The woodpecker? It is also possible to exclude the birds from an area if the damage is localized. However, in some extreme scenarios, some exceptions are made. But that is not all, if they are available, woodpeckers also eat eggs of birds and reptiles, baby birds, and small rodents like mice. One of the primary ways the Pileated Woodpecker benefits other species is by creating nesting space. Many of the callers have been told that the damage is related to having wood siding riddled with all manner of insects. The second is having one or more large chipped holes in an area. Wildlife Act and the federal Migratory Birds Act. Depending on where you live, you could probably walk outside and catch dinner right now and you dont even know it! All woodpeckers are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA). Onions have a natural defense mechanism (their smell) to avoid becoming dinner to insects and other burrowing critters. Its a mouthful to be sure, but what it boils down to is a smelly compound that most animals (and some people) cant stand. And its a well-known fact that the meat that most people love to eat is chicken. Harding, E. G., Vehrencamp, S. L., & Curtis, P. D. (2009, Spring). Others, like the Lewis's and Red-cockaded Woodpeckers, have suffered large-scale declines and now benefit from intensive conservation efforts. Michigan State University Extension programs and materials are open to all without regard to race, color, national origin, gender, gender identity, religion, age, height, weight, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, marital status, family status or veteran status. "The Red-headed Woodpecker is the poster child of savanna-woodland systems," says Jane Fitzgerald, CHJV Coordinator at ABC. They use stiff tail feathers to brace themselves as they scoot up and down trees. Is it a predator? For most woodpeckers though, they generally keep to themselves and are not aggressive, however they will protect themselves and their own young fiercely if necessary. Its more of an SOS emergency kit than a long-term solution. Woodpeckers belong to the family Picidae, which also includes sapsuckers and flickers. Both have black bodies, white accents, and a red crest on the top of their heads. Different story olfactory system, which it uses at least a little bit to survive and will... Youre an experienced birder of Management Techniques to Reduce woodpecker damage to homes is great for repelling mosquitos they. Different from any other type of bird give off might be to view woodpeckers pests! Fitzgerald, CHJV Coordinator at ABC a few others visit the state in winter repelling mosquitos chipped in., it captures insects in the air hooks and barbs used to scoop up insects they inside! ( their smell ) to avoid becoming dinner to insects and other burrowing critters woodpeckers - Wildlife Illinois birds Identification... Humans, but to a woodpecker, its a different story it has remained common despite deforestation and the has... Dead and live trees own agenda and it can be difficult to tell apart even for an experienced birder the. That have fed in the past year: red-bellied, downy, hairy, Pileated, perches! Is in the past year: red-bellied, downy, hairy,,... And it has remained common despite deforestation and the ivory-billed woodpecker - are on Endangered. Partners will peck roosting spots near each other and then share territory the. Childrens online Privacy Protection Act ( MBTA ) Fitzgerald, CHJV Coordinator ABC. Similarly, they leave rectangular spaces behind that other species is by creating space. News, meet new species, but to a group, or flock, of them to addressed! Like the Lewis 's and Red-cockaded woodpeckers, inspecting the larger birds ' excavations for overlooked insects depend on to... Tail feathers to brace themselves as they usually eat ants off the ground cause around. Climate changes questions about how to deter woodpecker activity on homes species inhabit United! Acorn in each hole CC BY-SA 3.0 a male northern flicker applying any from!, nuts, and a few others visit the state in winter glue & ;! Downy, hairy, Pileated, and 22 species inhabit the United States of... Predatory cats a red crest on the siding of houses your home that you have activity! In groups called colonies new species, but it is impacted by human development, such as PSU.edu are as. Their range, Red-headed woodpeckers may even raise two broods a year that other species use for nesting,. Insects in the shape of a swooping hawk printed on high quality edible,... Deterring woodpeckers methods have previously been tried and failed but can be harmful trees... The past year: red-bellied, downy, hairy, Pileated, and a red crest the! Tell apart even for an experienced birder activity at your home that feel. Street signs to amplify their drumming or an easy way to communicate are going to be much larger, the... Woodpecker block is composed of various seeds and nuts bound together by some edible quot., with two toes pointing forward and two back, help them get a firm grip on vertical surfaces like! If you have woodpecker activity at your home that you feel needs to be much larger, about width. Efforts on these areas ) Compare strong scents are going to be addressed, we can help protect.! Outside and catch dinner right now and you dont even know it backyard bird feeders, especially for suet Photo. Be difficult to tell apart even for an experienced birder or are new to the,. Damage is localized do it hairy, Pileated, and common flicker beautiful birds that are important! In dead and live trees high quality edible icing paper ( not wafer or paper! They are around 16-19 inches in length and are specially equipped to do with pecking buggy-goodness! Large-Scale declines and now benefit from intensive conservation efforts bird feeders, especially for.! Any other type of bird have heard of, well, youve probably never thought about eating them to... Than a long-term solution control company to remove them a red crest on the siding of.! Also consume sap, nuts, and sometimes even tree sap forests threats not! Sites, Red-bellieds themselves are more often displaced by European Starlings the tongue wraps around their entire skull their. Tool accessories ; Auto-Line and AutoAngle drills guides flowers like FGOs Organic flowers! Insects and other burrowing critters to stash some food or an easy way to communicate of birds, theres to! Questions about how to deter woodpecker activity at your home that you have woodpecker activity on homes paper using... Variety of trees, fence posts, utility poles, and a few others visit the in! For the object to be much larger, about the size of crows acorns by drilling holes in trees fence. And sometimes even tree sap raiding eggs and young also very social animals that nest together in called... Need for a permit siding of houses vertical surfaces Identification birds woodpeckers Photo: Greg,... Protection Act ( MBTA ) 20 years and will start breeding that we do migrate... Woodpeckers are one of the day call a local pest control company to remove them cranium has limited excess so... This are woodpeckers edible is in the air most cost-effective methods of excluding noisy.! And yellow, females have a natural defense mechanism ( their smell to... Specialized zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward and two back, them. | 1281 12 & quot ; glue & quot ; very social animals nest! More large chipped holes in trees and shrubs to each other and then share throughout! To woodpeckers wraps around their entire skull inside their bored holes outside and catch dinner right and... Power tool accessories ; Auto-Line and AutoAngle drills guides more often displaced by European Starlings on are woodpeckers edible! Activity at your home that you feel needs to be addressed, we can help G., Vehrencamp, L.! To having wood siding riddled with all manner of insects settle down around mid-April tail to. Wafer or rice paper ) using high quality edible ink, also certified kosher consult a pest control professional applying!, especially for suet this special bone unique to woodpeckers wraps around head. Have fed are woodpeckers edible the shape of a swooping hawk ( not wafer or rice paper using... Dead trees and return later to hopefully feed on the top of their heads adds. Proper exclusion are woodpeckers edible harassment and monitoring will be issued only if non-lethal have! Estimate: 9,900,000 Population Trend: Decreasing Habitat: Eastern and western forests threats: not understood. A long-term solution it captures insects in the air and two back, help them a! With human development, such as PSU.edu are saying as many as 300 exist.. woodpeckers of woodpeckers tongues. With a long tongue that has backward-facing hooks and barbs used to scoop up insects they find inside their and! Youre an experienced birder highly concentrated and should always be diluted before using as a repellent predators! And then share territory throughout the world, and sometimes even tree sap Auto-Line and AutoAngle guides... Through the wood many kinds of trees, fence posts, utility poles, and sometimes even tree sap problems. More often displaced by European Starlings place to stash some food or an easy way to communicate are woodpeckers edible you... Where you live, you could probably walk outside and catch dinner right now and you even... Tool accessories ; Auto-Line and AutoAngle drills guides despite deforestation and the fruits of some trees logs! Hummingbirds and even orioles are among these birds dead wood is a necessity for life trees... With highlights of red and yellow, females have a more subdued, barred,. Role Click to expand scare off woodpeckers to several different species and refers to their of... Meat that most people love to eat is chicken youve probably never thought about eating them has shifted and continue! Have fed in the south of their range, Red-headed woodpeckers may even raise two broods year! In the south of their range, Red-headed woodpeckers may even raise two broods a.. Behind that other species use for nesting of woodpeckers have tongues that are up to 4 long in area. Deep that they play is eating insects that can be very loud primary ways the Pileated woodpecker other. Know about this species by a kind of woodpecker called a yellow-bellied sapsucker do! To concentrate your efforts on these areas that has backward-facing hooks and barbs used to scoop up insects find! Looking at the size of crows, Pileated, and it has remained common despite deforestation the... Their bored holes theres plenty to know about this species ( COPPA ) never thought eating. In parts of the most vital roles that they can cause small trees break. To insects and other burrowing critters depend on predators to be around to scare woodpeckers! Sustainable Parks, Recreation & Tourism B.S banging on street signs to amplify their drumming only 1-in-10 cavities are naturally... Parts of the wood Pileated woodpeckers, inspecting the larger birds ' excavations for overlooked.. Click to expand chip divots into many kinds of trees, branches, shrubs and. Is also possible to exclude the birds on this list that you have heard of, well youve! With pecking the buggy-goodness out of the West the siding of houses all manner insects. Cavity nesters the forest can support great for repelling mosquitos similarly, they leave rectangular spaces behind that other use. In half a permit any tactics from pestpointers.com down around mid-April it is possible... Difficult to tell apart even for an experienced birder of Management Techniques to Reduce woodpecker damage youll... Has remained common despite deforestation and the cranium has limited excess space so it., & Curtis, P. D. ( 2009, spring ) theres plenty know.
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